How Long Do Subliminals Take To Work

• Periodical Listing
• Neurosci Conscious
• five.2016(1); 2016
• PMC6204644

Neurosci Conscious. 2016; 2016(i): niw013.

Subliminal messages exert long-term effects on conclusion-making

Simon Ruch

Department of Psychology, Academy of Bern, Switzerland and Middle for Cognition, Learning and Memory, University of Bern, Switzerland

Marc Alain Züst

Section of Psychology, Academy of Bern, Switzerland and Eye for Cognition, Learning and Memory, University of Bern, Switzerland

Katharina Henke

Department of Psychology, University of Bern, Switzerland and Heart for Cognition, Learning and Memory, Academy of Bern, Switzerland

Received 2015 Dec ix; Revised 2016 Jul 1; Accepted 2016 Jul 22.

Abstract

Subliminal manipulation is often considered harmless because its effects typically decay within a second. So far, subliminal long-term effects on beliefs were only observed in studies which repeatedly presented highly familiar information such as single words. These studies propose that subliminal messages are only slowly stored and might not be stored at all if they provide novel, unfamiliar data. We speculated that subliminal letters might affect delayed decision-making especially if messages contain several pieces of novel data that must be relationally bound in long-term memory. Relational bounden engages the hippocampal memory system, which tin can rapidly encode and durably store novel relations. Here, we hypothesized that subliminally presented stimulus pairs would be relationally candy influencing the management of delayed conscious decisions. In experiment 1, subliminal face–occupation pairs affected conscious decisions about the income of these individuals near one-half an 60 minutes afterwards. In experiment 2, subliminal presentation of vocabulary of a foreign language enabled participants to later make up one's mind whether these foreign words are presented with correct or incorrect translations. Subliminal influence did non significantly disuse if probed later on 25 versus fifteen min. This is unprecedented testify of the longevity and impact of subliminal messages on conscious, rational determination-making.

Keywords: subliminal, decision-making, unconscious processing, long-term memory, hippocampus, information integration

Introduction

Subliminal messages exert various influences on our thoughts and our behavior (van Gaal et al., 2012; Hassin, 2013). Subliminal stimuli can facilitate conscious processing of related information (Van den Bussche et al., 2009), change our current mood (Monahan et al., 2000), boost our motivation (Aarts et al., 2008), and can even modify our political attitudes and voting intentions (Hassin et al., 2007; Weinberger and Westen, 2008). With such a broad touch, subliminally planted information might have the potential to alter our decisions in everyday situations such as voting.

In lodge to influence decision-making in real-life situations, subliminal messages must exist stored for long-term after simply a few exposures, e.g. after a unmarried confrontation with a subliminal TV advert. Furthermore, messages must be stored even if they contain complex relational information that requires semantic integration, such as "politico X will lower the taxes." For subliminal manipulation to be effective, humans thus have to be able to semantically integrate and rapidly store unconscious pieces of novel information into long-lasting associative memories that can exist retrieved if relevant to the context of a subsequently decision.

The processes which allow novel information to shape subsequent decisions are generally thought to depend on consciousness – be it the integration of novel information into abstruse mental representations (due east.g. Tononi, 2004), rapid encoding of these representations into long-term memory (e.g. Shanks, 2010), or the use of these representations to brand informed decisions (e.g. Newell and Shanks, 2014). However, growing evidence indicates that the human unconscious can perform various high-level cerebral functions (van Gaal et al., 2012; Hassin, 2013) that might let decision processes to benefit from subliminal letters.

Several studies reported that subliminally planted information tin be semantically integrated exterior conscious awareness (for a detailed review, see Mudrik et al., 2014). Indeed, humans can observe incompatible object-background configurations in subliminal scenes (Mudrik and Koch, 2013), solve subliminally presented arithmetic bug (García-Orza et al., 2009; Van Opstal et al., 2011; Sklar et al., 2012; Karpinski et al., 2016), and draw inferences from subliminal picture sequences and give-and-take pairs (Kawakami and Yoshida, 2015 and Reber and Henke, 2012, respectively).

Subliminal stimulation was further found to nonconsciously shape controlling – at least if masked stimuli consisted of single familiar items that required little integration. For example, priming studies reported that subliminal primes not only facilitate correct responses to related targets in a classification task, but also bias responses in "free pick" tasks in which participants can freely decide between response alternatives (Schlaghecken and Eimer, 2004; Klapp and Haas, 2005; Kiesel et al., 2006; Parkinson and Haggard, 2014; Ocampo, 2015). Similarly, studies on subliminal persuasion suggested that repeated subliminal exposure to brand names (e.g. "Lipton Ice Tea") or goal-relevant words (east.g. "thirst" in thirsty participants) can bias participants' product choices (Karremans et al., 2006; Bermeitinger et al., 2009; Verwijmeren et al., 2011, 2013) or reinforce a sure behavior (e.g. to drinkable, come across Strahan et al., 2002). Thus, in that location is ample prove that subliminal messages can be integrated unconsciously and tin can influence decisions and choices.

Whether subliminally presented information is stored in long-term memory to guide delayed decisions is vastly unknown. So far, studies on information integration and decision-making only assessed immediate influences of subliminal stimulation. Priming studies which assessed the longevity of subliminal influences commonly reported that behavioral furnishings of masked primes decay within 1 s (e.g. Forster et al., 1990; Ferrand, 1996; Greenwald et al., 1996). This suggests that subliminal information is non stored and thus cannot bear on delayed decisions. Yet, some studies reported that longer lasting subliminal influences on beliefs are possible under certain conditions. In many of these studies, the aforementioned subliminal messages were presented multiple times (Lowery et al., 2007; Capa et al., 2011; Levy et al., 2014; Farooqui and Manly, 2015). Furthermore, participants were often informed about the presence of subliminal stimuli and were provided conscious feedback or rewards afterward each subliminal message (Aarts et al., 2008; Capa et al., 2011; Farooqui and Manly, 2015) or were asked to consciously detect or allocate each subliminal consequence (Gaillard et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2009; Chong et al., 2014). These studies thus advise that subliminal messages are only slowly stored and are only retained if subjects accept the explicit intention to process the hidden events. Chiefly, virtually studies used familiar information such equally single words as subliminal stimuli to prime subsequent conscious processing of this information (Gaillard et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2009; Chong et al., 2014) or to prime a specific goal (eastward.thou. to perform well on a test), intention, or stereotype (Lowery et al., 2007; Capa et al., 2011; Levy et al., 2014). This suggests that subliminal long-term effects are achieved but if familiar information is presented but not if novel relational information has to be learned.

Nosotros asked if humans can rapidly integrate and store novel relational data (e.g. "person X is a manager", see Fig. 1a) from subliminal messages for later on use in a controlling state of affairs (due east.thousand. "guess the income of 10"). We speculate that subliminal messages should exist stored especially if they consist of multiple items that require relational processing. Relational binding calls upon the hippocampal retentiveness system, which tin can rapidly store novel relations for long term (Henke et al., 1997; Holdstock et al., 2002; Harand et al., 2012). Traditional views concord that hippocampus is just involved in the encoding and retrieval of consciously perceived information (Moscovitch, 1995; Squire and Zola, 1996; Tulving, 2002), and that associative learning outside conscious sensation is unlikely (Shanks, 2010). However, growing evidence suggests that hippocampus operates independently of consciousness and that nonconscious relational learning is humanly viable (for reviews, run across e.chiliad. Reder et al., 2009; Henke, 2010; Dew and Cabeza, 2011; Hannula and Greene, 2012; Olsen et al., 2012). Indeed, hippocampus was found to mediate implicit learning (Chun and Phelps, 1999; Greene et al., 2006; Negash et al., 2015) and retrieval (Greene et al., 2007; Hannula and Ranganath, 2009; Addante, 2015; Reber et al., 2016) of relational information between visible stimuli. Most chiefly, hippocampus was also found to exist involved in the encoding and retrieval of subliminally presented stimulus pairs (Henke et al., 2003; Reber et al., 2012; Duss et al., 2014; Züst et al., 2015).

(a) Design of experiments 1 and 2. Subliminal presentation of face–occupation pairs (Experiment 1) or pairs consisting of pseudowords and their translations (Experiment 2) altered participants' decisions when later asked to rate the income of faces or to identify correct (matching) translations of pseudowords. (b) Results. 2-tailed t-tests indicated that determination accuracy was significantly higher up the 50% chance level (mean accuracy with 95% conviction interval). *P <  0.05, **P < 0.01.

We ran ii experiments to exam whether subliminal stimulus pairs would affect delayed decision-making (Figure 1a). In experiment 1, we tested whether subliminal presentations of confront–occupation pairs would guide later witting decisions nearly the income of the same faces. We assessed the longevity of subliminal influence by measuring its decay across delays of 15–25 min. In experiment 2, we assessed if new vocabulary of a foreign linguistic communication is acquired subliminally affecting afterwards lexical-semantic decisions on the same foreign words. Both experiments were composed of an encoding phase, an encoding-test interval that was filled with rest, and a test phase (Fig. 1a). The decision chore given in the test phase constituted an indirect (implicit) memory test. Importantly, participants were kept naïve regarding subliminal stimulation until the end of the experiment. This allowed us to assess subliminal influences in the absence of any explicit intention to process the hidden messages.

Method

General procedure

Unless indicated otherwise, experimental procedures were identical for both experiments. We used a well-established paradigm to render stimuli invisible (Duss et al., 2011). Each stimulus was presented 12 times for 17 ms during one unconscious encoding episode of 6 s duration (see Supplementary Fig. one). Stimuli were preceded and followed past visual noise masks (sandwich masking). In experiment ane, xl face–word pairs were encoded in twoscore unconscious encoding episodes. In experiment 2, each unconscious encoding episode contained a pseudoword–word pair that was presented twice in nonadjacent repetitions, yielding a total of 48 encoding episodes for 24 pseudoword–word pairs. Stimuli and masks were embedded in an attention job which allowed u.s. to direct participants' focal attention to the screen without disclosing the presence of subliminal messages (run into Supplementary Fig. 1). The task required participants to respond to target screens that appeared at random times once in every encoding episode (see Supplementary Fig. 1). Mean hit rate to targets was >85% in both experiments. Following the attention job, participants rested for 15, 20, or 25 min (depending on experiment and status) earlier performing the decision tasks. The attention task and the decision job were briefly practiced at the beginning of the experiment using a few stimuli that were non used later on.

Following the chief experiments, a structured interview was performed to assess subjective awareness for subliminal data. Using funneled questions, we first asked participants whether they had seen any unexpected stimuli during the attention task or had suspected the presence of any subconscious information, and and so asked more than specifically whether they had seen hidden faces or words. We then informed participants of the subliminal stimulation and administered forced-option tests to assess awareness of subliminal stimuli objectively. Masking prototype and attention task in these sensation tests were the same as in the main experiments. Nonetheless, awareness was tested trial-by-trial: post-obit each encoding episode of a new stimulus pair, the attending task was interrupted and participants were asked to provide data about the subliminal stimuli. We expected participants to perform at chance level in these tests if masking rendered stimuli truly subliminal.

Experiments were approved by the local ethics committee. Written semi-informed consent was obtained from all participants before experimentation. The data about subliminal stimulation was provided following the experiment.

Participants

We recruited participants with normal or corrected-to-normal visual vigil. In experiment 1, 2 participants were excluded post hoc due to errors in data logging. Of the remaining 46 participants (19 men and 27 women, mean historic period = 36.0), 23 were tested with a 15 min delay between subliminal encoding and controlling, and 23 with a 25 min delay. In experiment 2, two participants were excluded post hoc because they had failed to study their decisions inside the response fourth dimension window. The remaining sample consisted of 23 women and 11 men (mean age = 22.viii).

Experiment 1

During the encoding phase, we presented x faces combined with written high-wage occupations and 10 faces with low-wage occupations (Fig. 1a). Twenty additional faces were paired with consonant strings and presented subliminally in a command condition (not reported). Each stimulus pair was presented in just one subliminal encoding episode, which comprised 12 stimulus repetitions within 6 s. The encoding-examination interval spanned 15 or 25 min. In the test phase, the former subliminal faces were re-presented for v s for conscious inspection with the instruction to determine whether an individual would earn a high or low income.

Objective sensation tests

We administered two forced-option tests to appraise awareness of subliminal faces and occupations objectively. In each test, nosotros presented 40 novel face–occupation pairs subliminally using the same attending task as in the primary experiment. Immediately post-obit the encoding of a novel pair in a subliminal encoding episode, the attention chore was interrupted and participants were interrogated regarding the but presented face or occupation. In the face-awareness test, the just subliminally presented face and a novel confront were presented side past side for conscious inspection. Participants were asked to select the face that they thought was just flashed subliminally. In the occupation-awareness test, the text "Income?" was presented which signaled participants to name the income ("high" vs. "depression") that they thought would the simply subliminally flashed occupation yield. After giving their response, the attention task was continued and a new face up–occupation pair was presented subliminally. Participants took either 40 face-awareness trials followed by 40 occupation awareness trials or vice versa.

Material

We used 160 grayscale images of male faces that were given average income ratings in a airplane pilot study. Images were equalized regarding luminance and contrast and were assigned to 16 lists of 10 faces each. Lists were comparable with respect to income, age, facial pilus, and emotional facial expression. Lists were balanced over experimental conditions such that each face was presented an equal number of times with a high- and a depression-wage occupation and with a consonant string. All faces were as well rotated into the two sensation tests. Stimuli were presented an equal number of times in the principal experiment, and the sensation tests of faces and occupations. Hence, results in the experiment and the sensation test derived from the same stimulus material (presented to unlike participants).

We used x typical loftier- and 10 low-wage occupation words that were similar regarding mean logarithmic word frequency (Leipzig Corpora Collection, http://corpora.uni-leipzig.de/) and character count.

Faces were displayed at the eye of the screen in front of a dark gray background. Words were presented below the faces in light grayness in a sans-serif font. Stimuli were delivered at a visual angle of 15° using a Digital Light Processing (DLP) projector with a 60 Hz refresh rate.

Experiment 2

Participants encoded 24 combinations of written pseudowords (fictitious foreign language) and German words (fictitious translations). We presented these pseudoword–discussion combinations subliminally for unconscious semantic relational encoding using the same prototype as in experiment i. There were ii nonadjacent subliminal encoding episodes (each comprising 12 stimulus repetitions inside 6 southward) per word pair inside a randomized sequence of subliminal encoding episodes. The encoding-exam interval spanned 20 min. At test, we re-presented the aforementioned foreign words for 5 south for witting inspection. Each foreign word was shown likewise a German give-and-take that was a synonym to the subliminal German translation of either this or another foreign word. Synonyms were used to exam for semantic rather than perceptual relational retrieval. One-half of foreign words presented at examination were recombined to break the encoded semantic relation (wrong translations) and half were combined to keep the semantic relation from encoding to test (correct translation). Participants were instructed to decide whether or not a presented foreign word and the German translation word fit together (match/mismatch decision).

Objective awareness test

We administered one forced-choice test to assess awareness of subliminal words objectively. Participants encoded 24 (novel) pseudoword–German word pairs. Following each subliminal encoding episode, a probe give-and-take was displayed for conscious inspection for participants to decide whether or not the probe was a synonym to the simply presented subliminal German give-and-take. In half the trials, the probe was a valid synonym to the subliminally presented German word, in the other half the probe was an unrelated foil. Hence, we assessed the semantic processing of subliminal words, as in the master experiment.

Fabric

We created 48 give-and-take triplets consisting of a pseudoword, its German language translation used for subliminal encoding, and a synonym to the High german translation used for the decision task (see Fig. 1). German language synonym pairs were gathered from Open Thesaurus (http://www.openthesaurus.de/). Ii-syllabic pronounceable pseudowords were created using German and Dutch syllables provided by the Celex database (http://celex.mpi.nl/). The 48 encoding stimuli were assigned to four lists of 12 items each with equal distributions of word lengths, pronounceability, concreteness, animatedness, and logarithmic frequency of advent (fatigued from Leipzig Corpora Collection, http://corpora.uni-leipzig.de/). Assignment of German translations to pseudowords was randomized anew for each listing and each participant to reduce potential bias resulting from particular combinations. Two lists were used for the principal experiment and the other two lists for the awareness test; this assignment was balanced over participants. Twelve further German language words were used as foils in the awareness exam. Pseudowords were displayed in the left and German words in the right visual field of participants. Words were presented for subliminal encoding using the aforementioned masking paradigm and psychophysical conditions as applied in experiment 1.

Results

Experiment i

In experiment 1, nosotros tested whether subliminal presentations of face up–occupation pairs would influence later nomenclature of the same faces. Nosotros hypothesized that participants would rate individuals who had earlier been flashed with a high-wage or low-wage occupation as high-income or low-income earners, respectively. A two-tailed t-test on the mean decision accuracy confirmed this hypothesis. Mean decision accurateness was 53.97% (95% CI [51.25, 56.96]), which exceeded the adventure level of 50% (t(45) = 2.94, P = 0.005; r = 0.40) (Fig. 1b). Hateful decision accuracy was not significantly smaller afterward 25 compared to fifteen min (53.04% vs. 54.90%; two-tailed t(44) = 0.68, P = 0.l; r = 0.10), which indicates that the upshot of subliminal encoding persisted through both retention intervals at equal strength. Hence, new semantic associations were stored for long term affecting the direction of decision-making about half an hour later.

An interview that was administered later on the chief experiment to assess subjective awareness of the masked stimuli suggested that none of the participants had seen the subliminal faces or words during encoding. Two objective awareness tests further indicated that masked stimuli could not be consciously perceived. Participants performed at take a chance level of l% if asked which one of two faces had but been presented subliminally (mean recognition accuracy = 48.81%, 95% CI [46.36, 51.27], missing data of one participant due to information loss) or if a high-or low-wage occupation had been presented (mean recognition accuracy = 49.06%, 95% CI [46.90, 51.23]). The t-tests against risk level were non significant (awareness for faces: t(43) = −0.98, P = 0.34, r = 0.15; awareness for occupations: t(44) = −0.ninety, P = 0.37, r= 0.13), suggesting that participants were consciously unaware of the subliminal stimuli. However, the nonsignificant tests exercise not reveal whether participants were truly unaware (i.e. whether H0 can exist accepted), or whether our tests were non sensitive plenty to detect awareness. We, therefore, calculated Bayes factors for the two t-tests following the recommendations provided in Dienes (2008, 2014). Bayes factors (BF) indicate the relative force of 2 hypotheses H1 and H0 with a BF(H1/H0) = 1 suggesting that the data are inconclusive and favor neither hypothesis, and BFs > 3 or < 1/three suggesting substantial prove for H1 or H0, respectively. Assuming that sensation of subliminal stimuli should yield recognition accurateness that is comparable to functioning in the decision task (iii.97% above hazard level), we chose a half-normal prior distribution with a mode of 0 and a standard divergence of 3.97% to calculate BF (Dienes, 2014). The resulting BF for the face-awareness test (hateful accuracy = 1.19% beneath chance level, SE = 1.21%) and the occupation-sensation examination (hateful accurateness = 0.94% below take chances, SE = one.04%) were 0.16 and 0.14, respectively. Both factors were below 1/iii, indicating substantial testify for the null hypothesis, i.e. that participants were not aware of the masked stimuli. Nosotros further performed a multiple regression assay to assess whether potential awareness of faces or occupations predicted decision accuracy in the main experiment, and to approximate whether accurateness remained to a higher place chance level if the theoretical sensation in both tests is 0 (i.eastward., whether the intercept is meaning). This method was brought forwards by Greenwald et al. (1995). Although subject to criticism (e.g. Miller, 2000), this method is used widely to assess whether subliminal influences on behavior are independent of stimulus awareness. Neither potential awareness of faces (β = 0.16, t(41) = 0.88, P = 0.383) nor potential awareness of occupations (β = 0.24, t(41) = ane.2, P = 0.23) predicted decision accuracy in the principal experiment. Decision accuracy in the main experiment remained in a higher place chance level when nosotros controlled for selection accuracy in the two awareness tests (intercept of the regression with two predictors; t(41) = 2.93, P < 0.01, r= 0.42). In a last stride, nosotros excluded those participants from the analysis of the data from the principal experiment, who tended to perform higher up or beneath adventure level in either of the two awareness tests (12 participants exhibited an awareness score with a binomial probability of P < twenty%). Classification accurateness in the chief experiment remained above chance level (54.12%, 95% CI [50.72, 57.51], t(33) = 2.468, P = 0.019, r = 0.39) with these 12 participants removed. We, therefore, conclude that at that place was no sensation of encoding stimuli in the main experiment and that long-term effects derived from unconscious processing alone.

Experiment 2

In experiment 2, nosotros tested for long-term effects using a subliminal vocabulary acquisition task. Nosotros hypothesized that new vocabulary would exist encoded subliminally influencing delayed lexical–semantic decisions on the same strange words when they were presented visibly. At test, participants were instructed to decide whether or not a given foreign word and a German translation discussion fit together (lucifer/mismatch conclusion). On average, 52.7% (95% CI [50.i, 55.two]) (Fig. 1b) of synonyms were classified accurately, which exceeded adventure level (two-tailed t-examination: t(33) = ii.128; P = 0.041; r = 0.35). Hence, the meaning of subliminal German words was decoded, linked to foreign words, and stored to influence lexical–semantic decisions 20 min following subliminal encoding.

An interview administered following the chief experiment assessed the subjective awareness of the masked stimuli. Participants' responses indicated that none had consciously perceived subliminal words or letters. An objective awareness was used to approve the subjective reports. When asked whether a consciously displayed German word represents a synonym to a just subliminally flashed German give-and-take, participants decided correctly in 51.iii% of cases (95% CI [48.9, 53.8]). This performance did not significantly exceed hazard level of l% (t(33) = 1.121, 2-tailed P = 0.27; r = 0.nineteen). To validate whether operation was truly at adventure level, we again calculated the Bayes factor for the t-test as suggested by Dienes (2008, 2014). Assuming that awareness for subliminal words should yield a recognition accuracy comparable to operation in the decision task (2.seven% to a higher place run a risk level), we chose a one-half-normal prior distribution with a mode of 0 and a standard deviation of ii.seven% to estimate the BF (Dienes, 2014). The resulting cistron for the awareness test (mean accuracy = 1.3% higher up chance level, SE = 1.16%) was 1.14, which suggests that the test was non sensitive enough to reject stimulus awareness. Whether participants were truly unaware of the subliminal words thus remains elusive. However, further analyses suggested that subliminal long-term influences on decision-making did non benefit from stimulus awareness. Starting time of all, a regression analysis (Greenwald et al., 1995) indicated that accuracy in the awareness examination did non predict decision accuracy in the main experiment (β = 0.038, t(32) = 0.216, P = 0.83), which was above take chances level when selection accuracy on the awareness test was 0 (intercept of regression; t(31) = 2.052, P = 0.045, r = 0.34). Furthermore, even if those 2 participants, who tended to perform above or below chance level in the sensation examination (binomial probability of P < 20%), were excluded from the analysis of the data from the principal experiment, classification accuracy remained above hazard level (52.6%, 95% CI [fifty.i, 55.one], t(31) = 2.142, P = 0.040, r = 0.36). Although the Bayes analysis yielded an inconclusive result regarding stimulus sensation in the awareness examination, the regression analysis suggests that long-term effects on conclusion-making derived from unconscious processes.

Discussion

To summarize, subliminal exact and nonverbal item pairs influenced participants' witting, deliberate decisions about half an hour following subliminal stimulation. In experiment 1, subliminal face–occupation pairs influenced conscious decisions on the income of the same individuals afterward delays of 15 and 25 min. In experiment ii, subliminal presentation of foreign language vocabulary influenced participants' decisions on correct/wrong word translations after a delay of 20 min. These findings provide unprecedented bear witness of a considerable longevity of subliminal furnishings on intentional beliefs such as determination-making.

So far, most investigators who addressed the longevity of subliminal priming reported that subliminal effects on beliefs would fade inside i southward (e.m. Greenwald et al., 1996), which suggests that subliminal messages leave no long-term memory traces and therefore cannot influence delayed decisions. The few studies which reported longer lasting effects used familiar stimuli that were repeatedly presented to participants who were informed about the presence or purpose of subliminal events (eastward.g. Chong et al., 2014; Levy et al., 2014). These studies suggest that subliminal information may be stored for long term if it is familiar, if many subliminal exposures are provided for a ho-hum, incremental encoding process, and if subjects explicitly intent to process the subliminal information. Whether novel subliminal information tin can exist integrated and stored following a single exposure to naïve subjects remains unclear. Even less clear is whether a subliminal quondam processing has sufficient strength to influence delayed decision-making. We establish that participants, who were unaware of the presence and purpose of subliminal information, successfully processed subliminal face–word and nonword–discussion pairs and formed lasting unconscious semantic relational memories based on only one or two subliminal encoding episodes (each comprising 12 adjacent subliminal stimulus repetitions).

We speculate that the reported rapid encoding and long-term retention of subliminal information owes to the type of stimuli and the memory system these stimuli called upon. Equally mentioned above, conclusions regarding the longevity of subliminal priming rested on the use of familiar single-item stimuli such as words (eastward.g. Forster et al., 1990; Ferrand, 1996; Greenwald et al., 1996). It is known that the processing of unmarried items engages neocortex (Henke et al., 1997; Duss et al., 2014), which forms long-term memory traces rather slowly over many learning trials (McClelland et al., 1995). This might explicate why subliminal influences were establish to be short-lived or to build upwardly slowly. Here, we used multi-particular displays that contained both novel (unfamiliar faces or foreign words) and familiar (occupation words or German translation words) pieces of information. Relational encoding of multiple stimuli engages hippocampus (Henke et al., 1997; Duss et al., 2014), which learns apace and stores relations for long term due to its exceptional plasticity (McClelland et al., 1995). Subliminal relational encoding and retrieval take been associated reliably with hippocampal action changes (Henke et al., 2003; Reber et al., 2012; Züst et al., 2015). Importantly, hippocampal damage abolished both supraliminal (witting) and subliminal (unconscious) relational binding only left subliminal unmarried-detail priming intact (Duss et al., 2014). As encoding-exam intervals spanned a few minutes or less in these previous neuroimaging experiments, they were uninformative regarding longer term effects of subliminal stimuli on beliefs. Using similar stimuli and the aforementioned masking technique, we now demonstrate subliminal effects on decisions delayed by xv–25 min. Considering subliminal influences did not noticeably disuse from the delay of xv–25 min in experiment 1, we speculate that subliminally planted information might affect decision-making even at longer intervals.

The long-lasting influence of subliminal stimulus pairs evinces nonconscious relational learning, simply the experimental paradigms employed in this written report do non pin downwards the exact nature of the unconsciously formed memories. Although we presume that subliminal stimulus pairs yield semantically precise unconscious relational memories ("person 10 is a manager", "gumpel means dog") that are later reactivated to support decision-making, our experimental setup cannot dominion out the possibility that participants had formed associations between faces/strange words and broad semantic or affective categories (e.k. "person X as a manager must be wealthy", "I despise gumpel because I fear dogs"). Such fuzzy semantic/affective associations could suffice to guide subsequent decisions ("10 has a high income because he is wealthy", "hound is a valid translation of gumpel because I despise both"). Simply we would like to point out that the results of earlier investigations on subliminal encoding and long-term retentivity formation demonstrated unequivocally that subliminal words are understood with high semantic precision. In Duss et al. (2011), subliminal presentations of face–occupation pairs influenced participants' subsequent conscious classifications of the same faces when various semantic dimensions were offered, namely regularity of income, length of education, and creativity of work. Faces encoded with an artistic instead of an academic occupation (e.g. "thespian" vs. "lawyer") were later classified equally generating an irregular income, coming from a shorter schoolhouse education, and performing creative work. These distinct influences of subliminal information on diverse semantic classifications suggest a precise rather than diffuse lexical–semantic word analysis. Further testify for precise subliminal encoding is provided past our studies on unconscious relational inference (Reber and Henke, 2012; Reber et al., 2012; Henke et al., 2013). In these studies, overlapping subliminal give-and-take pairs such as "wintertime-red" and "red-calculator" (A–B, B–C) were presented apart in fourth dimension and were nevertheless integrated semantically to influence delayed judgments regarding the semantic relatedness of A and C, like "winter-estimator". The successful relational integration in this subliminal paradigm cannot exist explained past affective or fuzzy semantic discussion priming.

Doubts take been raised recently as to whether experimenters had fairly assessed stimulus sensation and correctly estimated influences of subliminal stimuli on beliefs (Newell and Shanks, 2014; Hesselmann and Moors, 2015). To avert such suspicion, we assessed stimulus awareness following the main experiments using objective awareness tests that had the same statistical ability as our determination tasks. The objective awareness tests confirmed that the subliminal stimulation paradigm rendered stimuli largely (experiment 2) or completely (experiment 1) imperceptible to the conscious mind, and that the observed long-term effects of subliminal stimulation were independent of stimulus awareness. Because we did not assess awareness of each subliminal stimulus immediately post-obit the corresponding encoding episode in the main experiments, we cannot rule out the possibility that participants were briefly aware of some of the subliminal images. However, none of the participants reported to have noticed the presence of subconscious or masked information during the main experiments or during the objective awareness tests. Hence, all available information suggest that the reported long-term influences of subliminal stimuli were independent of consciousness.

The finding that subliminally processed data is quickly integrated and stored to guide delayed decisions challenges prevailing views of the cognitive role of consciousness. Consciousness is unremarkably considered a precondition for successful data integration (Tononi, 2004; Mudrik et al., 2014), relational learning (Shanks, 2010), and controlling (Bettman et al., 1998; Simonson, 2005; Newell and Shanks, 2014). Even so, evidence is accumulating that these notions of consciousness need revision (Dijksterhuis and Nordgren, 2006; Nordgren, 2006; Reder et al., 2009; Henke, 2010; Dew and Cabeza, 2011; Olsen et al., 2012; Hannula and Greene, 2012; van Gaal et al., 2012; Hassin, 2013). Indeed, unconscious integration of unlike semantic concepts and of temporally or spatially distributed percepts was reported non only for stimuli that were rendered subliminal using visual masking but also for stimuli made invisible using continuous wink suppression (Mudrik et al., 2011; Sklar et al., 2012; Vlassova et al., 2014; Bergström and Eriksson, 2015; Karpinski et al., 2016) or visual crowding (Atas et al., 2013). Even during the unconsciousness of deep sleep, words, sounds, and odors were plant to be integrated (Ruby et al., 2008; Daltrozzo, et al., 2012) and stored in long-term retentiveness (Arzi et al., 2012, 2014; Ruch et al., 2014) to attune beliefs following waking. More evidence for the feasibility of unconscious relational integration is provided by social psychology: decisions, which require the consideration, weighing and integration of big amounts of (supraliminally provided) information, were ameliorate following unconscious deliberation than conscious reasoning (e.1000. Dijksterhuis et al., 2006; Mealor and Dienes, 2012; Abadie et al., 2013). This 'deliberation without attention' consequence suggests that our witting decisions are vitally influenced past nonconscious processes (simply come across due east.thousand. Newell and Shanks, 2014; Nieuwenstein et al., 2015; and Vadillo et al., 2015 for disquisitional reviews).

In sum, our findings add to a growing body of evidence suggesting that subliminal messages can be used to change our thoughts, attitudes, emotions, and actions (van Gaal et al., 2012; Hassin, 2013). Subliminal stimulation was shown to influence current moods (Monahan et al., 2000), political attitudes (Hassin et al., 2007; Weinberger and Westen, 2008), intentions (Hassin et al., 2007), choices and decisions (Bermeitinger et al., 2009), and cerebral strategies (Lau and Passingham, 2007; Reuss et al., 2011). However, fiddling is known nigh the longevity of these subliminal influences considering these studies were focused mainly on immediate furnishings of subliminal stimulation. Hither, we demonstrate that a few exposures to novel subliminal information is sufficient to influence delayed decision-making. The surprising impact of subliminal messages on rational, intentional, witting behavior lends subliminal protocols to practical applications, of which advertising is but ane example.

Supplementary information

Supplementary information is available here.

Supplementary Material

Supplementary Data

Acknowledgments

This piece of work was supported past Swiss National Science Foundation Grants Grand-13K1-119953 to K.H. and P0BEP1_148941-one to Chiliad.A.Z.

Behavioral data are available on asking.

References

• Aarts H, Custers R, Marien H. Preparing and motivating behavior outside of sensation. Science 2008;319:1639 10.1126/science.1150432. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Abadie M, Waroquier L, Terrier P. Gist memory in the unconscious-thought effect. Psychol Sci 2013;24:1253–9. ten.1177/0956797612470958. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Addante RJ. A critical role of the human hippocampus in an electrophysiological measure of implicit retentiveness. NeuroImage 2015;109:515–28. 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.12.069. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Arzi A, Holtzman Y, Samnon P, et al. Olfactory aversive conditioning during sleep reduces cigarette-smoking behavior. J Neurosci 2014;34:15382–93. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2291-fourteen.2014. [PMC costless article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Arzi A, Shedlesky L, Ben-Shaul 1000, et al. Humans can learn new information during slumber. Nat Neurosci 2012;xv:1460–five. x.1038/nn.3193 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Atas A, Faivre N, Timmermans B, et al. Nonconscious learning from crowded sequences. Psychol Sci 2013. ten.1177/0956797613499591. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Bergström F, Eriksson J. The conjunction of non-consciously perceived object identity and spatial position tin be retained during a visual short-term retentiveness task. Conscious Res 2015;1470.. 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01470 [PMC free commodity] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Bermeitinger C, Goelz R, Johr N, et al. The subconscious persuaders break into the tired brain. J Exp Soc Psychol 2009;45:320–6. 10.1016/j.jesp.2008.10.001 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Bettman JR, Luce MF, Payne JW. Effective consumer selection processes. J Cons Res 1998;25:187–217. 10.1086/209535 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Capa RL, Cleeremans A, Bustin GM, et al. Long-lasting outcome of subliminal processes on cardiovascular responses and performance. Int J Psychophysiol 2011;81:22–30. 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.04.001 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Chen JCW, Li Due west, Lui M, et al. Left-frontal brain potentials alphabetize conceptual implicit retention for words initially viewed subliminally. Brain Res 2009;1285:135–47. 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.05.085 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Chong TTJ, Husain Thou, Rosenthal CR. Recognizing the unconscious. Curr Biol 2014;24:R1033–5. 10.1016/j.cub.2014.09.035 [PMC gratis article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Chun MM, Phelps EA. Memory deficits for implicit contextual information in amnesic subjects with hippocampal damage. Nat Neurosci 1999;2:844–seven. 10.1038/12222 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Daltrozzo J, Claude Fifty, Tillmann B, et al. Working memory is partially preserved during sleep. PLoS ONE 2012;7:e50997.. 10.1371/journal.pone.0050997 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Dew ITZ, Cabeza R. The porous boundaries betwixt explicit and implicit memory: behavioral and neural evidence. Ann NY Acad Sci 2011;1224:174–90. 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05946.10 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Dienes Z. Understanding Psychology as a Science: An Introduction to Scientific and Statistical Inference. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. [Google Scholar]
• Dienes Z. Using Bayes to get the most out of non-significant results. Quant Psychol Meas 2014;5:781.. x.3389/fpsyg.2014.00781 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Dijksterhuis A, Bos MW, Nordgren LF, et al. On making the right pick: the deliberation-without-attending event. Science 2006;311:1005–7. 10.1126/science.1121629. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Dijksterhuis A, Nordgren LF. A theory of unconscious thought. Perspect Psychol Sci 2006;i:95–109. ten.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00007.10. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Duss SB, Oggier S, Reber TP, et al. Formation of semantic associations between subliminally presented face-word pairs. Conscious Cogn 2011;20:928–35. ten.1016/j.concog.2011.03.018. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Duss SB, Reber TP, Hänggi J, et al. Unconscious relational encoding depends on hippocampus. Brain 2014;137:3355–lxx. 10.1093/brain/awu270. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Farooqui AA, Manly T. Anticipatory control through associative learning of subliminal relations: invisible may be better than visible. Psychol Sci 2015;26:325–34. 10.1177/0956797614564191. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Ferrand 50. The masked repetition priming effect dissipates when increasing the inter-stimulus interval: evidence from word naming. Acta Psychologica 1996;91:15–25. 10.1016/0001-6918(95)00010-0. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Forster K, Booker J, Schacter DL, et al. Masked repetition priming: lexical activation or novel memory trace? Balderdash Psychon Soc 1990;28:341–5. 10.3758/BF03334039. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Gaillard R, Cohen L, Adam C, et al. Subliminal words durably affect neuronal activity. NeuroReport 2007;18:1527–31. 10.1097/WNR.0b013e3282f0b6cd. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• García-Orza J, Damas-López J, Matas A, et al. "2 10 3" primes naming "6": show from masked priming. Atten Percept Psychophys 2009;71:471–80. 10.3758/APP.71.3.471 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Greene AJ, Gross WL, Elsinger CL, et al. An fMRI analysis of the human hippocampus: inference, context, and task awareness. J Cogn Neurosci 2006;18:1156–73. 10.1162/jocn.2006.eighteen.seven.1156 [PMC costless commodity] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Greene AJ, Gross WL, Elsinger CL, et al. Hippocampal differentiation without recognition: an fMRI assay of the contextual cueing task. Acquire Mem 2007;14:548–53. 10.1101/lm.609807. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Greenwald AG, Draine SC, Abrams RL. Three cognitive markers of unconscious semantic activation. Scientific discipline 1996;273:1699–702. 10.1126/science.273.5282.1699 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Greenwald AG, Klinger MR, Schuh ES. Activation by marginally perceptible ("subliminal") stimuli: dissociation of unconscious from conscious cognition. J Exp Psychol-Gen 1995;124:22–42. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Hannula DE, Greene AJ. The hippocampus reevaluated in unconscious learning and memory: at a tipping point? Front Hum Neurosci 2012;half-dozen ten.3389/fnhum.2012.00080. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Hannula DE, Ranganath C. The eyes have it: hippocampal activity predicts expression of memory in center movements. Neuron 2009;63:592–9. 10.1016/j.neuron.2009.08.025. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Harand C, Bertran F, La Joie R, et al. The hippocampus remains activated over the long term for the retrieval of truly episodic memories. PLoS One 2012;seven:e43495.. 10.1371/journal.pone.0043495. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Hassin RR. Yes information technology can: on the functional abilities of the man unconscious. Perspect Psychol Sci 2013;8:195–207. 10.1177/1745691612460684. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Hassin RR, Ferguson MJ, Shidlovski D, et al. Subliminal exposure to national flags affects political idea and behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007;104:19757–61. 10.1073/pnas.0704679104. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Henke One thousand. A model for retentivity systems based on processing modes rather than consciousness. Nat Rev Neurosci 2010;11:523–32. 10.1038/nrn2850. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Henke Chiliad, Cadet A, Weber B, et al. Human being hippocampus establishes associations in memory. Hippocampus 1997;7:249–56. 10.1002/(SICI)1098-1063(1997)vii:3<249::AID-HIPO1>three.0.CO;two-One thousand. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Henke K, Mondadori CRA, Treyer V, et al. Nonconscious formation and reactivation of semantic associations past mode of the medial temporal lobe. Neuropsychologia 2003;41:863–76. x.1016/S0028-3932(03)00035-vi. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Henke K, Reber TP, Duss SB. Integrating events across levels of consciousness. Front Behav Neurosci 2013;7:68.. 10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00068. [PMC free commodity] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Hesselmann One thousand, Moors P. Definitely maybe: tin unconscious processes perform the same functions every bit conscious processes? Conscious Res 2015;584 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00584. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Holdstock JS, Mayes AR, Isaac CL, et al. Differential interest of the hippocampus and temporal lobe cortices in rapid and slow learning of new semantic information. Neuropsychologia 2002;xl:748–68. ten.1016/S0028-3932(01)00192-0. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Karpinski A, Yale M, Briggs JC. Unconscious arithmetics processing: a direct replication. Eur J Soc Psychol 2016; n/a-northward/a. 10.1002/ejsp.2175. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Karremans JC, Stroebe W, Claus J. Beyond Vicary'due south fantasies: the touch on of subliminal priming and make choice. J Exp Soc Psychol 2006;42:792–8. 10.1016/j.jesp.2005.12.002. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Kawakami N, Yoshida F. Perceiving a story outside of witting sensation: when we infer narrative attributes from subliminal sequential stimuli. Conscious Cogn 2015;33:53–66. x.1016/j.concog.2014.12.001. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Kiesel A, Wagener A, Kunde W, et al. Unconscious manipulation of free pick in humans. Conscious Cogn 2006;15:397–408. 10.1016/j.concog.2005.10.002. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Klapp ST, Haas BW. Nonconscious influence of masked stimuli on response selection is limited to concrete stimulus-response associations. J Exp Psychol-Hum Percept Perform 2005;31:193–209. ten.1037/0096-1523.31.1.193. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Lau HC, Passingham RE. Unconscious activation of the cognitive control system in the human prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci 2007;27:5805–11. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4335-06.2007. [PMC costless article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Levy BR, Pilver C, Chung PH, et al. Subliminal strengthening: improving older individuals' physical function over time with an implicit-age-stereotype intervention. Psychol Sci 2014;2525:2127–35. 10.1177/0956797614551970. [PMC gratis commodity] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Lowery BS, Eisenberger NI, Hardin CD, et al. Long-term effects of subliminal priming on academic performance. BASP 2007;29:151–7. 10.1080/01973530701331718. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• McClelland JL, McNaughton BL, O'reilly RC. Why at that place are complementary learning systems in the hippocampus and neocortex: insights from the successes and failures of connectionist models of learning and retention. Psychol Rev 1995;102:419–57. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Mealor Advertisement, Dienes Z. Conscious and unconscious thought in artificial grammar learning. Conscious Cogn 2012;21:865–74. 10.1016/j.concog.2012.03.001. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Miller J. Measurement fault in subliminal perception experiments: simulation analyses of 2 regression methods. J Exp Psychol-Hum Percept Perform 2000;26:1461–77. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Monahan JL, Murphy ST, Zajonc RB. Subliminal mere exposure: specific, full general, and lengthened effects. Psychol Sci 2000;xi:462–vi. 10.1111/1467-9280.00289. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Moscovitch K. Recovered consciousness: a hypothesis concerning modularity and episodic memory. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1995;17:276–90. 10.1080/01688639508405123. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Mudrik L, Breska A, Lamy D, et al. Integration without sensation: expanding the limits of unconscious processing. Psychol Sci 2011;22:764–70. 10.1177/0956797611408736. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Mudrik L, Faivre N, Koch C. Information integration without awareness. Trends Cogn Sci 2014;18:488–vi. 10.1016/j.tics.2014.04.009. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Mudrik L, Koch C. Differential processing of invisible congruent and incongruent scenes: a case for unconscious integration. J Vis 2013;13:24.. 10.1167/thirteen.13.24. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Negash S, Kliot D, Howard DV, et al. Relationship of contextual cueing and hippocampal volume in amnestic mild cognitive impairment patients and cognitively normal older adults. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2015;21:285–96. 10.1017/S1355617715000223. [PMC free commodity] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Newell BR, Shanks DR. Unconscious influences on decision making: a disquisitional review. Behav Brain Sci 2014;1–19. x.1017/S0140525X12003214. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Nieuwenstein MR, Wierenga T, Morey RD, et al. On making the right selection: a meta-analysis and large-scale replication attempt of the unconscious idea advantage. Judgm Decis Mak 2015;10:1–17. [Google Scholar]
• Ocampo B. Unconscious manipulation of free option by novel primes. Witting Cogn 2015;34:4–nine. 10.1016/j.concog.2015.03.007. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Olsen RK, Moses SN, Riggs 50, et al. The hippocampus supports multiple cognitive processes through relational binding and comparison. Front Hum Neurosci 2012;6:146.. ten.3389/fnhum.2012.00146. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Parkinson J, Haggard P. Subliminal priming of intentional inhibition. Cognition 2014;130:255–65. 10.1016/j.cognition.2013.11.005. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Reber TP, DoLam A, Elger CE, et al. Intracranial EEG correlates of implicit relational inference within the hippocampus. Hippocampus 2016;26:54–66. ten.1002/hipo.22490. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Reber TP, Henke K. Integrating unseen events over fourth dimension. Conscious Cogn 2012;21:953–60. 10.1016/j.concog.2012.02.013 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Reber TP, Luechinger R, Boesiger P, et al. Unconscious relational inference recruits the hippocampus. J Neurosci 2012;32:6138–48. x.1523/JNEUROSCI.5639-11.2012. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Reder LM, Park H, Kieffaber PD. Memory systems exercise not dissever on consciousness: Reinterpreting retentiveness in terms of activation and binding. Psychol Bull 2009;135:23–49. 10.1037/a0013974. [PMC gratis article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Reuss H, Kiesel A, Kunde West, et al. Unconscious activation of task sets. Witting Cogn 2011;xx:556–67. 10.1016/j.concog.2011.02.014. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Ruby P, Caclin A, Boulet S, et al. Odd audio processing in the sleeping brain. J Cognitive Neurosci 2008;20:296–311. ten.1162/jocn.2008.20023. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Ruch Due south, Koenig T, Mathis J, et al. Word encoding during slumber is suggested by correlations betwixt give-and-take-evoked up-states and post-slumber semantic priming. Front Psychol 2014;five:1319.. 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01319. [PMC costless article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Schlaghecken F, Eimer K. Masked prime stimuli tin can bias "gratis" choices between response alternatives. Psychon Bull Rev 2004;11:463–viii. ten.3758/BF03196596. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Shanks DR. Learning: from association to cognition. Annu Rev Psychol 2010;61:273–301. 10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100519. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Simonson I. In defence force of consciousness: the office of conscious and unconscious inputs in consumer pick. J Cons Psychol 2005;15:211–17. 10.1207/s15327663jcp1503_5. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Sklar AY, Levy Northward, Goldstein A, et al. Reading and doing arithmetic nonconsciously. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2012. ten.1073/pnas.1211645109. [PMC free commodity] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Squire LR, Zola SM. Construction and function of declarative and nondeclarative memory systems. Proc Natl Acad Sci Usa 1996;93:13515–22. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Strahan EJ, Spencer SJ, Zanna MP. Subliminal priming and persuasion: striking while the iron is hot. J Exp Soc Psychol 2002;38:556–68. ten.1016/S0022-1031(02)00502-four [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Tononi G. An data integration theory of consciousness. BMC Neurosci 2004;5:42.. 10.1186/1471-2202-v-42. [PMC gratis article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Tulving E. Episodic memory: from heed to brain. Annu Rev Psychol 2002;53:1–25. http://doi.org/Commodity [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
• Vadillo MA, Kostopoulou O, Shanks DR. A critical review and meta-analysis of the unconscious thought effect in medical decision making. Conscious Res 2015;636.. 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00636. [PMC costless article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Van den Bussche Eastward, Van den Noortgate Westward, Reynvoet B. Mechanisms of masked priming: a meta-analysis. Psychol Balderdash 2009;135:452–77. 10.1037/a0015329. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• van Gaal Southward, De Lange FP, Cohen MX. The function of consciousness in cognitive control and conclusion making. Front end Hum Neurosci 2012;half dozen:121.. 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00121. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Van Opstal F, de Lange FP, Dehaene S. Rapid parallel semantic processing of numbers without sensation. Noesis 2011;120:136–47. 10.1016/j.cognition.2011.03.005. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Verwijmeren T, Karremans JC, Bernritter SF, et al. Alert: Y'all are beingness primed! The effect of a warning on the impact of subliminal ads. J Exp Soc Psychol 2013;49:1124–9. 10.1016/j.jesp.2013.06.010. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Verwijmeren T, Karremans JC, Stroebe W, et al. The workings and limits of subliminal advert: the role of habits. J Cons Psychol 2011;21:206–13. 10.1016/j.jcps.2010.11.004. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Vlassova A, Donkin C, Pearson J. Unconscious information changes decision accuracy only non confidence. Proc Natl Acad Sci Us 2014;111:16214–8. 10.1073/pnas.1403619111. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Weinberger J, Westen D. RATS, we should have used Clinton: subliminal priming in political campaigns. Polit Psychol 2008;29:631–51. 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00658.x. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]
• Züst MA, Colella P, Reber TP, et al. Hippocampus is place of interaction between unconscious and conscious memories. PLoS I 2015;10:e0122459.. x.1371/journal.pone.0122459. [PMC gratuitous article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

---

Manufactures from Neuroscience of Consciousness are provided here courtesy of Oxford University Printing

---

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6204644/

Share this post